RATS AND LEPTOSPIROSIS.

Leptospirosis a bacterial disease that affects humans and animals. It is caused by bacteria of the genus Leptospira. In humans, it can cause a wide range of symptoms, some of which may be similar to other diseases and some infected persons, however, may have mild to severe symptoms. Leptospirosis can lead to kidney damage, meningitis,liver failure, respiratory distress, and even death. The risk of infection with Leptospirosis is high with people close to animals such as dogs, cattle, horses, and pigs. These animals get infected when they are exposed to urine of infected rats, or have contact with contaminated drinking water or swimming/paddling through water inhabited by rats or contaminated by rat’s urine. When these animals are infected, they may show no signs of the disease. Infected animals may continue to excrete the bacteria into the environment continuously or every once in a while for a few months up to several years. Humans can become infected through; 1) Contact with urine (or other body fluids, except saliva) from infected animals. 2) Contact with water, soil, or food contaminated with the urine of infected animals. 3) The bacteria can enter the body through skin or mucous membranes of eyes, nose and mouth, especially if the skin is broken from a cut or scratch. 4) Drinking contaminated water can also cause infection. Outbreaks of Leptospirosis are caused by exposure to contaminated water, such as floodwaters and person to person transmission is rare. Leptospirosis occurs worldwide, but is most common in temperate or tropical climates. It is an occupational hazard for many people who work outdoors or with animals, such as: Farmers, Mine workers, Sewer workers, Slaughterhouse workers,(abattoir),Veterinarians and animal handlers, Fish farmers, and Dairy farmers. The time between a person's exposure to a contaminated source and becoming sick is 2 days to 4 weeks. Illness usually begins abruptly with fever and other symptoms. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS; In humans, Leptospirosis can cause mild or severe signs this include; 1) High fever 2) Headache 3) Chills 4) Muscle aches. The Severe signs include; 1) Vomiting 2) Jaundice (yellow skin and eyes) 3) Red eyes 4) Abdominal pain 5) Diarrhea and 6)Rash.

DOG BREEDERS AND SALE OF SICK PUPPIES.

Julie Crumpler Peele faces five additional felony charges of obtaining property under false pretenses. These are in addition to the two charges she already faced last month after two different viewers who say Peele sold them sick puppies.When confronted Peele in October, she denied the puppies she sells are sick."It makes me very angry," Paige McKeithan said.McKeithan told me she met Peele in July, 2014 and bought a dog named Gunner from her."My mom was holding him and we felt that the stomach was really tight, and so my mom asked if the dog was sick, and she said no he just didn't like car rides. So I thought he was just sick from that," McKeithan added.But she said within 24 hours of buying him from Peele, Gunner had to be rushed to the vet. McKeithan said the vet suspected the parvo virus and also that Gunner had parasites and bacteria in his bloodstream. She spent over $2,000 in vet care for Gunner, and said the vet did everything she could to get Gunner healthy, but nothing was working. According to ( http://abc11.com/pets/woman-allegedly-selling-sick-puppies-facing-new-charges/1077899/)She had to put Gunner down, and now she has a message for Peele: "Just for her to stop doing this and for something to be done."

RABIES AND DOG IMPORTATION.

Dog breeders and pet lovers and owners have been warned continuously of dangers associated with dog importation.The breeders are supposed to ensure the dogs get the necessary vaccinations before they are sold and shipped off, but some mischievous breeders/puppy mill merchants dont vaccinate these pets thus exposing the pet lovers to a risk.The pets that are shipped branding certificates are often times discovered to be fake, thus strict documentation laws must be ensured and vaccination records verified to ensure safety. There has been cases of shipping off animals to other countries which were incubating various pathogens, a recent case is the rabid dog shipped to the US from Egypt (as reported by STAT http://www.statnews.com/2015/12/17/rabies-dog-cdc/) The rabid dog was transported into the country in May by an animal rescue organization. It was later discovered the dog’s rabies vaccination certificate was a fake, CDC officials said .It’s the fourth time — that officials know of — in the last 11 years that a rabid dog has been imported to the United States. Ten people who had substantial contact with the animal were advised to get post-exposure rabies treatment and eight more involved in its importation opted to get vaccinated as a precaution, CDC and state health department officials wrote in a report on the incident published in this week’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, a journal operated by the CDC.‘There’s no shortage of adoptable dogs in the US’ Dr. Nicky Cohen said the CDC issued guidelines last year to spell out what is needed, from a rabies control standpoint, to import companion animals to the United States. Chief among them: an authentic rabies vaccination certificate. It also pointed out some red flags to look for on rabies vaccination certificates to spot fakes — things like multiple dogs in a shipment having identical certificates or evidence that a dog’s name has been whited out. “It’s pretty basic,” Cohen admitted. “There have been four incidences where rabid dogs have been imported. But we do know that more dogs than just these four have been imported with falsified records. This was issued in response to the recognition of imported dogs with falsified vaccination records.”The dog from Egypt was part of a shipment of eight dogs and 27 cats. It was the only animal in the shipment that was infected.

MANAGING COCCIDIOSIS..

The critical control points for coccidiosis vaccination; effective way of preventing coccidiosis is vaccination at the hatchery. This only works out well if critical points are taken into account, both at the hatchery as well as in a later stage at the farm. Vaccination against coccidiosis in poultry is used mainly in broiler, turkey and layer breeder flocks; commercial layer flocks reared on the floor; antibiotic free broiler operations and some commercial turkey grower operations. Vaccinating with a coccidiosis vaccine in conventional broiler operations is increasing rapidly, mainly in a rotational programme with anticoccidials, aiming at restoring the sensitivity of the anticoccidials. Whatever the reason for vaccinating with a coccidiosis vaccine, attention to some critical factors will determine the level of success of establishing immunity against coccidiosis. The Eimeria parasites given during the vaccination, infects the intestinal cells and continues its life cycle inside the gut. Un sporulated oocysts are excreted after 5-7 days, time depending on the species; the oocysts then sporulate outside the bird, given suitable environmental conditions exists, and after re-ingestion of these sporulated oocysts, infection and another cycle starts. Immunity development is dependent on successful excretion of oocysts and then re-ingestion of these sporulated, shed oocysts. Depending on the species, 2-3 infection – excretion – re-ingestion – re-infection – excretion cycles are needed to acquire a protective immunity. The vaccination process and the subsequent development of immunity, irrespective of the application method, can thus be divided in two distinct areas:Vaccine application – ensuring uptake of the vaccine . Post vaccination management include ; ensuring suitable environmental conditions for sporulation exists and recycling of the sporulated oocysts takes place. The necessary procedures to actually check the vaccine uptake by the birds must be implemented. Adding a suitable dye to the vaccine makes this possible by randomly checking boxes/crates of chicks/poults and see if they actually did ingest the vaccine by counting the number of chicks/poults in the box/crate with a dye colored tongue . . Recycling of oocysts and monitoring Oocyst shedding can be measured by sending faecal samples to a lab that is capable of doing an Oocyst Per Gram (OPG) count. Faecal material (NOT bedding) is collected at specific intervals post vaccination: Chickens at days 7/14/21/28 post vaccination Turkeys at days 6/13/20/27 post vaccination. The first count should be positive. This is a very good indicator of the effectiveness of the vaccine application done in the hatchery as well as an indicator that the vaccine that was used was still infective. The second count should show a significant increase. This is used as an indicator that the shed oocysts sporulated and re-ingestion of these shed oocysts have taken place. Read more ;world poultry.

STEPS TO ELIMINATE HUMAN RABIES!!!

Int'l groups launch new global framework to eliminate human rabies;The framework was a joint effort of the WHO, World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and Global Alliance for the Control of Rabies (GARC).The effort is to adopt a plan of action that is expected to deliver prompt post-exposure prevention (PEP) for people in rabies endemic areas, as well as a framework for scaling up sustained, large-scale dog vaccination. Rabies occurs in more than 150 countries and territories “Rabies is 100% preventable through vaccination and timely immunization after exposure, but access to post-bite treatment is expensive and is not affordable in many Asian and African countries,” said Dr. Margaret Chan, WHO Director-General. “Vaccinating 70% of dogs regularly in zones where rabies is present can reduce human cases to zero,” said OIE Director-General Dr. Bernard Vallat. Rabies is a human infection that is transmitted usually through the saliva of an infected animal (most of the time dogs), either through its bite, scratch, or licking of a human's open wounds.It is estimated that worldwide, one person dies from rabies every 10 minutes, based on data from the World Health Organization (WHO). Four out of 10 people bitten by suspected rabid dogs are children below 15. To stop deaths caused by the vaccine-preventable viral disease, the new framework calls for three key actions:Making human vaccines and antibodies affordable Ensuring people who get bitten receive prompt treatment and Mass dog vaccinations to tackle the disease at its source. Philippines among 10 worst rabies-affected countries In the Philippines, 200 to 300 Filipinos die of rabies infection every year, making it among the top 10 countries with the worst rabies problem.For its part, the Philippine government has a National Rabies Prevention and Control Program under the DOH, which aims to eliminate rabies by 2020. Story credit; CNN Philippines.

THE THREAT OF THE WEST NILE VIRUS.

The disease is prevalent in Africa,but has been observed in the U.S; read more http://www.thehorse.com/features/35412/west-nile-virus-in-u-s-horses?utm_source=Newsletter&utm_medium=farm-barn&utm_campaign=11-08-2015

VACCINATION AND HORSE HEALTH.

Diseases can occur suddenly, and without a proper vaccination protocol,it could be fatal. The benefit of vaccination aside from health status is hinged on the performance of the horse, and its much better to vaccinate your horses than to wait for disease incidence and initiate treatment. Vaccination protects the horse against disease agents by stimulating their immune system to develop antibodies when exposed to infectious agents.Vaccinations do not confer immediate protection,it takes the body 2-4 weeks to produce the protective antibodies against the disease.The first exposure vaccination must be followed by a booster shot at 4 weeks to strengthen the expected response. HOW TO GET THE BEST FROM VACCINATION. 1) Develop and maintain a vaccination protocol. 2)Obtain vaccines from reliable sources. 3)Maintain the cold chain. 4)Do not vaccinate sick animals. 5)Use sterile syringes and use recommended dose and route. The Eastern and Western encephalomyelitis, west nile virus,rabies and tetanus toxoid are essential for every horse, these must be done alongside other vaccinations.

EQUINE VIRAL RHINOPNEUMONITIS.

The equine viral rhinopneumonitis caused by a herpes virus is also referred to as rhino in horses,this is similar to common cold in humans. Respiratory disease in horses is one of the reasons for poor performance in race horses.The herpes infection though not usually fatal can be a prolonged infection.The virus causes abortion,foal death,neurological diseases and respiratory tract problems. Rhinopneumonitis is spread by aerosol,direct contact with secretions,utensils,drinking water contaminated by nasal secretions.The complication is usually by secondary bacterial infection which might result in death. SIGNS 1) Fever, 2)clear nasal discharge 3) coughing 4) abortions. PREVENTION. 1) Vaccination. Mares should be vaccinated at 5,7 and 9 month of gestation. 2)Isolation of affected horses. 3) strict bio security protocol. 4) antibiotic treatment for secondary bacteria infection.

VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR HORSES.

http://www.thehorse.com/articles/35029/infographic-vaccinating-your-horse?utm_source=Newsletter&utm_medium=health-news&utm_campaign=12-16-2014

BIO SECURITY TIPS TO KEEP HORSES SAFE.

Bio security measures are simple but effective protocols that must be practices to keep infectious agents out of farm facility and also to control spread of diseases in cases of outbreaks. These protocols are simple and easy to comply with, each facility will need a programme tailored to their needs/function.The bio security measures can only be effective if the horses have been vaccination and given other required medication. Bio security can be discussed broadly on these levels,which are further sub divided to mini levels. Bio security is based on 1) isolation. 2) clean,wash and disinfection .3) waste disposal. Isolation basically deals with restriction of visitors to stalls, keep your horses away from strange horses, make your barns/stables rodent proof e.t.c Cleaning,washing and disinfection of tools,implements, stalls,walls, carriages,floors e.t.c.The proper disposal of waste is vital to the success of any bio security protocol. Horses need care everyday so dont wait until there is an incidence, because it will be too late. check out more http://www.thehorse.com/articles/32882/10-biosecurity-tips-from-top-equine-health-experts?utm_source=Newsletter&utm_medium=in-depth&utm_campaign=09-18-2015

BROILERS AND VACCINATION .

.Factors affecting broiler vaccination,http://poultryhealthtoday.com/shift-and-drift-affect-broiler-vaccination-decisions/

FEEDING BROILERS FOR PROFIT.

The feeding cost in broiler production accounts for over 70% the cost of production,hence proper feeding and management technique will ensure success in the venture.The feed efficiency also refers to feed conversion ratio is the amount of feed consumed by broiler to produce a unit of flesh.The feed efficiency of broiler is 2:1, that is for every 2kg of feed consumed a kg of flesh is expected.The lower the feed conversion ratio the better the feed efficiency. FACTORS AFFECTING FEED CONVERSION RATIO. 1) The broiler breeds are bred basically for meat,and the male broilers grow faster than the females.The males utilize the feed properly hence its better to raise males separate from females to save cost. 2)The females given same feed dont grow at same rate,their feed utilization is poor. 3)The age is another factor, after 8weeks the feed conversion ratio becomes poor.The birds consume more feed and they dont grow at expected rate,thus increasing production cost. 4)Nutrition; a balanced ration will stimulate growth,if essential nutrients are missing the feed becomes incomplete.The broiler diet consists of broiler starter which is 24% protein and 3000kcal energy and the finisher has 20% protein and 3200 kcal.If your feed is improperly mixed,the essential nutrients will not be available for growth and development. Feed that excludes certain nutrients will not ensure growth, and feed with excess salt will not ensure any growth and development. 5) Health of the flock; diseases affect growth and development of the birds.Diseases that affects the intestinal lining will result in mal absorption of feed,thus stunting growth.Disease causing nonabsorption/malabsorption of feed should be prevented. Common diseases that result in mal absorption such as coccidiosis,enteritis,toxicosis,worms and nutritional deficiency. These diseases are prevented by strict bio security protocols,vaccinations and medications and vitamin supplements. When all protocols are adhered to then,the venture will be very successful.

AGRIBUSINESS:HOW TO TAKE CARE OF CHICKENS.

AGRIBUSINESS:HOW TO TAKE CARE OF CHICKENS. AGRIBUSINESS:HOW TO TAKE CARE OF CHICKENS. The success of the venture depends on following strict health protocols that are wrapped around simple but effective bio security protocol.The health protocol involves vaccinations coupled with medications.The use of drugs take into consideration the withdrawal time,so as not to process birds with antibiotic residue for human consumption. Vaccination refers to a method of disease prevention in healthy animals by challenging the animal with an attenuated/killed agent of a disease so as to elicit the production of antibodies. When vaccinations are done properly and immunity conferred,the animal is said to have been immunized against such causative agents of disease.Vaccination though stimulates antibodies production to protect the animals ,but if not done properly ;the desired immunity will not be conferred.When immunity is not conferred,2 major causes are fingered.These are vaccine failure or vaccine break. When immunity is not conferred due to vaccine break,the following are causes; 1)when the cold chain is broken; usually from point of sale to area you need them.The vaccines are to be transported in coolers with enough ice packs for the trip.The potency of the vaccines cant be guaranteed when this occurs,and when used the required immunity is not conferred. 2) when using inappropriate dilution and concentration; this nullifies any effect the vaccine should have on the birds. 3)when expired vaccines are used,definitely no immunity can be conferred. While vaccine failure could occur in any of the following scenarios;1)using inappropriate dose; under/overdosing will not elicit any antibody reaction. 2)wrong dilution/route. 3)vaccination of sick birds. 4)stress on birds during handling especially in hot weather. 5)Use of chemicals along side the vaccines especially water purification solutions. 6)vaccinating birds when signs of diseases are visible in flock. AGRIBUSINESS:HOW TO TAKE CARE OF CHICKENS. Vaccinations,though very essential ,if not properly carried out will just be a waste of resources. When planning to vaccinate; keep it simple. 1)place vaccine in ice pack. 2)engage qualified personnel. 3) use vaccine as directed by manufacturers.

VETERINARY MEDICINE: THE CHICKEN STORY.

VETERINARY MEDICINE: THE CHICKEN STORY. VETERINARY MEDICINE: THE CHICKEN STORY. What are the conditions? Optimum temperature. Optimum humidity. proper biosecurity protocol. Adequate feed + water. Vaccination + medication. https://veterinarymedicineechbeebolanle-ojuri.blogspot.com/

Pets say @ funny stories.

woof! woof!! woof!!! vet time. VET time!! pet says its time for annual rabies shot. join the train @ world rabies day !!! Stand to be counted # responsible pet owner # animal-lover # pet lover.

RABIES !!!

RABIES ,a neglected zoonosis. What is Rabies?. This is a viral disease causing encephalitis in warm blooded animals.IT is zoonotic, meaning it is transmitted from animals to man. Rabies in man is a result of close contact with a rabid animal such as dogs,cats, bats, foxes, raccoons e.t.c. The rabies virus is in the saliva and urine of infected animals. 

The virus can be transmitted through bites of rabid animals, scratches, contamination of wounds with infected saliva, or mucosa contamination. 95% of human deaths occur in Africa and Asia, where 1/2 of those bitten are children under 10 years of age.

 The control of human rabies is linked to the eradication of rabies in animals. The prevalence of rabies is high in developing countries, poor underdeveloped countries because they dont seek medical care when bitten by rabid animals. 

The risk is also high in all these countries because of high population of stray dogs, increase contact of man with wild animals as man encroaches into the habitats of these reservoirs of the virus in the wild. In Nigeria, the reservoir hosts are dogs, cats , monkeys and to have a rabies free country , we advocate vaccination of our pets, and pre exposure vaccination for health workers @ risk such as vet, animal health professionals, animal handlers e.t.c. 

 What do you do when bitten by a rabid dog? 1) wash site of bite with soap and water, continuously for 10 to 15 mins, Wash under running water. 2) Pour antiseptic such as dettol or alcohol based solutions such as after shave lotion on site, to kill the virus @ site of bite. 3) Go to the clinic, and get the post exposure shots of the anti rabies vaccine. 4) Report the case to animal health agency nearest to you. 

A report is important to the vet hospital nearest to you, so that other steps as regards the dog can be taken, the dog must be quarantined for at least 10 days to ascertain if dog is truly rabid. The treatment protocol depends on certain factors such as, 1) has the victim been exposed to pre exposure vaccination.2) what is the status of the dog. Most people dont take pre exposure vaccination against rabies, so the bite site must be infiltrated with a RABIES IMMUNOGLOBULIN, before the anti rabies vaccination commences. 

 Treatment protocol. (NO prior vaccination) 1) wash site of bite, and in filtrate wound with the rabies immunoglobulin vaccine. 2) The anti rabies vaccine is administered on day 0, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days. 

 When a person has had pre exposure vaccination of the anti rabies vaccine, do the following. 1) wash site of bite but dont infiltrate wound site with the rabies immunoglobulin. 2) the antirabies vaccination is given on day 0 and 3 , just 2 shots of the vaccine.

 Day 0 signifies the day you start the vaccine administration, which should be the day of bite, as delay can be fatal. Rabies though deadly can be prevented, vaccinate your pets today. .

COCCIDIOSIS; VACCINATION A BETTER OPTION.

Coccidiosis is an intestinal disease affecting birds,its caused by a protozoan parasite of the genus EIMERIA. There are various species of eimeria affecting different segments of the intestine.The parasite is introduced to the flock by ingestion of the oocyst from dropping of infected birds,contaminated litter and bedding.The protozoan parasite effects on intestines results in poor feed utilization and malabsorption due to damage of intestinal lining.The damage to intestinal lining predisposes the birds to cross infection by Clostridium perfringens,which causes necrotic enteritis. The economic implication of coccidiosis on poultry production can be overuled simply by vaccinating birds at day one.This stimulates development of natural immunity against eimeria. This early exposure confers protection on the birds so that the intestinal health is maintained, which ensures that feed consumed is properly absorbed and utilized. Feeding accounts for 75% of cost of production in poultry, it is of pertinent importance that factors that will increase the cost should be avoided. Disease control/ prevention and management protocols should be well planned with strict compliance. Coccidiosis is a global issue and strategies have evolved over the years on management of the disease,vaccination of the flock has been adduced the most effective. Vaccination of birds coupled with moisture management in litters plays a significant role in prevention of coccidiosis.The production of drug-free animals for human consumption has further tipped vaccination as a better option to prevent coccidiosis in poultry. The campaign of no antibiotics and anticoccidials in poultry feed has been incorporated in Japan with the CP Bangkok producing drug-free birds.Dr Kreeta Khanti, a veterinarian and senior vice president stated that 1/2 of the 60 million broiler chicken produced annually by the Charoen Pokphand's poultry operation are now raised without antibiotics and anticoccidials. The company has stated that vaccinating for coccidiosis is a better option,it allows production of drug-free birds without sacrificing weight gain,conversion or profitability. The option of vaccination adds more value to their products and premium price on their products. The consumers today are much more concerned about what they eat,how the products are produced,handled stored and packaged.This awareness has made people kick against unwholesome products and opt in for organic foods/ antibiotic-free animal by products. Animal health is indeed human health.

COCCIDIOSIS AND ITS IMPACT ON POULTRY PRODUCTION.

Coccidiosis a common disease of poultry caused by the parasite Eimeria of various spp. The Eimeria spp,affects the intestines of birds,some species affect the caeca and others the small intestine. Chicken affected by coccidiosis show varying signs depending on the type of the organisms that are affecting the birds. Birds are generally in bad conditions,depressed,blood in droppings, inappetence,pale comb , wattles and diarrhoea. Chicks with coccidiosis have a hunched appearance, droopy wings and the chicks appear sleepy.The effect of coccidiosis in chicks could result in acute epidemic,wasting and sudden death. The effect of coccidiosis on birds has huge impact on the production rate of the birds because of how the parasite affects the intestines and the resultant effect on feed absorption , conversion and weight gain. Coccidiosis in early stages of chick development impairs absorption and utilization of feed ,which compromises the growth of the birds and feed conversion. This results in high production cost because more feed will be required to meet market size. The exposure of chicks to live vaccine early in production will protect birds by stimulating the production of protective immunity to coccidiosis by delivering uniformly low doses of live oocysts. The use of vaccination to prevent coccidiosis is a better strategy compared to in- feed anticoccidials, or oral medication of coccidiostats. Eimeria parasite causing coccidiosis are often resistant to anticoccidial drugs, which results in sub-clinical coccidiosis often associated with in-feed anticoccidials and oral coccidiostat. Sub-clinical coccidiosis , occurs when in- feed anticoccidials lose effectiveness,thereby causing the coccidial oocyst to leak into the flock. The effect of sub-clinical coccidiosis are increased mal-absorption,reduced effective caloric value and high production cost.The coccidiosis challenge is one that impact poultry production,so it is of paramount importance to use vaccination as a tool to prevent coccidiosis. Vaccinate your birds against coccidiosis!!!!!. protect your birds!!!!. The pic are showing post mortem lesion of chicken affected by Eimeria spp. A) shows the distended small intestine with mottled haemorrhage. C) shows a cut section of the ceca showing heamorrhages . B)the severe pallor of pectoral muscle as a result of haemorrhage in ceaca.

Probiotics : a paradigm shift in animal production.

Animal husbandry/ production has gone through turns and curves,coming up with different strategies and methods to enhance production of the animals. The industry is currently under fire to stop the use of antibiotics in feed as growth promoters. 

The feed additive directly affects the animals,their production rate and their products which indirectly impacts human health. 

 

The impact of antibiotics in animal feed on human health has been linked to antibiotic resistance resulting in superbugs,thus more and more people are looking for alternatives. There is a paradigm shift in the animal food industry on how animals are raised and managed,some older forms of management are been ditched for newer approaches. 

 The just concluded international production and processing expo (IPPE) in Atlanta,U.S Dr Andrew Read of the Pennsylvania state university remarked that vaccination makes viruses "hot" more dangerous,he sited the Marek's disease stating that some vaccines drive the evolution of more virulent pathogens. 

 Prebiotics and Probiotics have also been added to feed to ensure git health,thus promoting better absorption of feed in animals resulting in enhanced growth and excellent feed conversion.

 Probiotics are alternatives to antibiotic in feed,these are incorporated into feed to manage the normal microflora of the gut which ensures the following 1) strengthen bowel wall. 2)improve mineral absorption. 3)it nurtures good bacteria , stifle production of bad,disease-causing bacteria and it causes multiplication of beneficial bacteria. 

 Probotics are usually live bacteria ,examples are Lactobacillus spp, Enterococcus faecum, Bacillus spp and bifidobacterium spp. 

 Prebiotics are specialized plant fiber that beneficially nourishes the good bacteria,the plant fibers act as fertilizers to promote the growth of many good bacteria in the gut.The prebiotic usually contain both inulin and oligofructose,which treats the entire bowel wall for maximum effectiveness. 

 The combination of prebiotic and probiotic is referred to as synbiotics, is an alternative to antibiotic growth promoters. The change train is on the move, join in now.Stop the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal feed.

Avian influenza: Emerging infectious disease.

The highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI)A virus subtype H5,have been circulating among poultry in several countries in Asia and Africa for many years. The HPAI virus have caused hundreds of infections in humans and has poised public health threat.This prompted the government of China to embark on mass vaccination of flock and culling of infected birds. The protocol was effective because the virus was curtailed,thus saving lives and preserving animal production lines, but it had some major disadvantages. The protocol is expensive, and the government is currently seeking ways to stop the mass vaccination.The key disadvantage was that subclinical levels of HPAI was found among vaccinated chicken,where the H5N1 had evolved into multiple H5N2 genotypes which are all vaccine-escape variants.(emerging infections journal vol 20. Num 12-Dec 2014) The vaccination played an important role at the onset,but resulted in production of other variants that are highly pathogenic and pose a more fatal threat .This clearly shows that vaccination of flock is not the way to combat the virus, rather education of the populace,bio security,surveillance,rapid diagnosis and culling/destruction of infected birds.